Surveying the Yunnan–Burma Border

1. Guangxu reign, Qing dynasty
2. 68.5 x 57 cm

This map was probably used as a source of reference by Xue Fucheng, the Qing envoy to Great Britain, in the negotiation over border demarcation between Yunnan and Burma with British foreign secretary Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery(1847-1929). This explains why the map carries information on border demarcation options and the local environment, which was used to brief the Qing court on the overall situation of the area. The upper left-hand side shows where the Kachin Hills and Tibet intersect and the important pass between Sichuan and Tibet. From there an orange-red dotted line extends southwards along the west side of the Lu-kiang River. Notations include "The land on the south border of Tibet is not yet occupied by Great Britain," "The red dotted line has not yet been accurately surveyed by the British," and "This border has also been trespassed." In addition, the end of the dotted line is marked in both Chinese and English noting "British survey ends here." The Cis-Salween Shan States on the east side of the Lu-kiang River were occupied by the British, and Xue insisted that the border of this section be re-surveyed. There is also a notation reading, "The green part is the Kachin Hills, and except for Bha-mo, the area above the 24th parallel north has never been part of Burma. The plan is to demarcate the border of this region with Great Britain." However, the region of the Kachin Hills is not painted green on the map.

1. Signed on the 23rd day of the 6th month in the 12th year of the Guangxu reign, Qing dynasty (July 24, 1866), in Beijing
2. 33 x 20.5 cm

Following the Sino-French War, Great Britain sought to stem France's expanding influence at China's southwest borders, and in 1885, the 11th year of China's Guangxu reign, sent troops to Burma and captured King Thibaw Min (1859-1916), on the pretext that the Burmese king had punished a British company for underreporting logging activity. On New Year's Day of the following year, Great Britain notified the Qing court and announced its annexation of Burma to British India. On the 23rd day of the 6th month in the 12th year of the Guangxu reign (July 24, 1886), the Convention Relative to Burma and Thibet between China and Great Britain was signed in Beijing by President Yikuang (1838-1917) of the Zongli Yamen (late Qing's Ministry of Foreign Affairs), and Nicholas Roderick O'Conor (1843–1908), former British Chargé d'Affaires in China. The Convention consists of five articles, including the following four: (1) Inasmuch as it had been the practice of Burma to send decennial Missions to present articles of local produce, England agrees that the highest authority in Burma shall send the customary decennial Missions, the members of the Mission to be of Burmese race; (2) China agrees that in all matters whatsoever appertaining to the authority and rule which England is now exercising in Burma, England shall be free to do whatever she deems fit and proper; (3) The frontier between Burma and China to be marked by a Delimitation Commission, and the conditions of frontier trade to be settled by a frontier trade Convention, both countries agreeing to protect and encourage trade between China and Burma; and (4) Inasmuch as inquiry into the circumstances by the Chinese Government has shown the existence of many obstacles to the Mission to Thibet …, England consents to countermand the Mission forthwith. With regard to the desire of the British Government to consider arrangements for frontier trade between India and Thibet, it will be the duty of the Chinese Government, after careful inquiry into the circumstances, to adopt measures to exhort and encourage the people with a view to the promotion and development of trade. Should it be practicable, the Chinese Government shall then proceed carefully to consider trade regulations; but if insuperable obstacles shall be found to exist, the British Government will not press the matter unduly. The fourth article, in particular, makes opening frontier trade between Tibet and India a principle. Thus, Burma fell entirely to British rule, and the Qing court claimed suzerainty over Burma in name only.