The Manual of Birds, originally titled the Collaborative Copy of Jiang Tingxi’s “Manual of Birds” by Yu Sheng and Zhang Weibang, consists of 12 volumes, each containing 30 illustrations, for a total of 360 illustrations. The National Palace Museum holds the first four volumes, while the remaining eight are preserved in the Beijing Palace Museum. In 1750, court painters Yu Sheng and Zhang Weibang were commissioned to reproduce Jiang Tingxi’s “Manual of Birds” in the imperial collection. This project spanned 11 years and was completed in 1761. The Manual of Birds includes zoological records, with the right-hand pages featuring detailed gongbi-style paintings that incorporate Western techniques to depict various bird species. Each painting can stand alone as an independent album leaf. The left-hand pages record the birds’ names, shapes, characteristics, habitats, and ecological behavior in both Chinese and Manchu scripts, making it akin to a modern encyclopedic ornithological atlas.
Agriculture and Sericulture is a set of agricultural illustrations that depict the processes of farming and silk weaving, serving as a vital visual historical resource for studying ancient agricultural and textile techniques. Several versions of Agriculture and Sericulture produced by the Qing court have been preserved, with this particular album dating back to the Qianlong reign (1736–1795). According to the prefatory text written by Emperor Qianlong in 1739, the album was created to commemorate the virtues of Emperor Kangxi (1654–1722), who prioritized agriculture and sericulture while showing diligence and love for his people. Using Ploughing (1696) from the Kangxi era as its basis, this album was redrawn by court painter Chen Mei (c. 1694–1745) under imperial commission. The complete set consists of 46 illustrations, equally divided between tilling and weaving, with each accompanied by a poem composed by Emperor Qianlong (1711-1799) in response to the original rhymes of Emperor Kangxi. The illustrations are similar in content to the Kangxi version of Agriculture and Sericulture but omit the tilling and weaving poems written by Southern Song poet Lou Shu (c. 1090–1162).
This artwork exemplifies the continuation and inheritance of the Southern Song dynasty’s figure painting style by the Ming dynasty court painting academy. Although the painting lacks an author’s signature, the inscription on the colophon by Liu Xiang (fl. 15th century) in 1471 states that this painting was created by Shi Rui, a famous artist living in the capital city. It is presumed that “Shi Rui” refers to the Ming dynasty court painter Shi Rui (fl. 15th century). The painting’s title scroll features the inscription “Bichuang Qingwan” in large clerical script by Xia Heng, the minister of Court of the Imperial Stud. Liu noted that the theme of the painting is “Xuanyuan Wendao,” narrating the story of the Yellow Emperor (Xuanyuan) seeking advice on Taoist self-cultivation from the immortal Guang Chengzi, who resided on the Kongtong Mountains.
The One Hundred Famous Views in Edo is a series of works made by renowned Edo period ukiyo-e artist Utagawa Hiroshige (1797–1858) during the last two years of his life. This collection depicts the iconic landscapes and landmarks of Edo (modern-day Tokyo). The complete series comprises 120 works, four of which are believed to have been completed by his disciples. In 1854, the Ansei Great Earthquakes caused significant destruction and loss of life in Edo. Utagawa Hiroshige, in creating this series, sought to provide comfort and solace to the people of Edo during this challenging time. Fireworks over Ryogoku Bridge, from the series One Hundred Famous Views in Edo portrays the summer tradition of firework display held between May 28 and August 28 on the lunar calendar. These events took place on the Ryogoku Bridge, which spanned the provinces of Shimōsa and Musashi.
This painting of a majestic blue harbor narrates the story of early modern East Asian and Western European exchanges. The painting centers on the Nagasaki Harbor, with the sea occupying the majority of the composition. Similar works can be found in prominent institutions such as the Kyushu National Museum in Japan and the Rijksmuseum in the Netherlands. From a stylistic perspective, the artist employs a bird’s-eye view to depict the Nagasaki Harbor scene. The arrangement of urban buildings and the handling of shadows enhance the painting’s strong sense of spatial depth, illustrating the artist’s intent to portray an East Asian harbor using Western painting techniques.
An Edo woman of both talent and beauty shines radiantly against the glittering mica. This work is part of the Beauty Contest in the Pleasure Quarters, a series of paintings made by artist Chōkōsai Eishō (fl. late 18th century). The term “pleasure quarters” in the title refers to the Yoshiwara red-light district in Edo (modern-day Tokyo). Within the bustling streets of this famous district, the exceptionally talented beauties of various brothels compete to attract customers. The woman depicted in this painting is named Shinohara, a leading figure from the famous brothel “Crane House.” Shinohara is shown turning three-quarter sideways, gazing at a letter in her right hand while adjusting her hairpin with her left thumb and forefinger. This pose conveys her image as a woman of intellect and beauty. Her smiling expression hints at the delightful message revealed in the letter. Notably, this piece incorporates mica as a printing material, which not only enriches the colors of the overprinting but also accentuates the woman’s fair complexion.
Portraits of Thirty-six Immortal Poets refers to the thirty-six renowned waka poets documented in the Anthology of Poems by the Thirty-Six Poets, compiled by the aristocratic poet Fujiwara no Kintō (966–1041) during the Heian period. These poets were later collectively referred to as the “Thirty-Six Immortal Poets” and were often depicted in illustrations and painted scrolls. Typically, each poet’s portrait was accompanied by their name, their brief biographical details, and a waka poem attributed to them. The figures in these illustrations were often rendered in the Kamakura period’s nise-e style, a technique of yamato-e painting emphasizing realism and documentary quality. This style employs delicate ink lines, repeatedly adjusted, to capture the essence of the subject’s facial features and spirit. The subjects of nise-e often included emperors, court nobles, warriors, poets, and occasionally animals such as horses and oxen.
The central figure in this thangka is gTsang pa rgya ras Ye shes rdo rje (1161–1211), the founder of Drukpa Kagyu, a branch of the Kagyu school in Tibetan Buddhism. At the very top is Cakrasamvara, the most venerated tantric deity of the Kagyu school. Surrounding him are earlier Kagyu school masters, including Dwags po lha rje (1079–1153), Phag mo gru pa (1110–1170), Karma pa Dus gsum mkhyen pa (1110–1193), Zhang tshal pa (1123–1194), Gling ras pa (1128–1188; gTsang pa rgya ras’ primary teacher), gTsang pa rgya ras’ principal disciples, and early leaders of Drukpa Kagyu. At the center of the lower section is Zhabs drung Ngag dbang rnam rgyal (1594–1651), a descendant of the gTsang pa rgya ras family. Following disputes over the succession of leadership, Zhabs drung Ngag dbang rnam rgyal left the gTsang pa rgya ras family for Bhutan. He later propagated the teachings of Drukpa Kagyu, unified the various Bhutanese tribes, and established an administrative center, laying the foundation for modern Bhutan.
Drink Sellers, painted by Qing dynasty artist Yao Wenhan (fl. 1736–1795), is one of the reproductions of ancient paintings by court painters during the Qianlong period. It depicts the popular tea-tasting competitions that flourished from Tang dynasty onwards, where tea enthusiasts would present their prized tea leaves for collective evaluations and competitions. The tea bowls depicted in the painting feature monochrome glaze invented during the Qing dynasty, such as “red glaze” and “green glaze,” rather than the black Jian kiln bowls traditionally used to assess tea colors. From this, it can be inferred that the competition in the painting focused on the taste and aroma rather than the visual appearance of tea.
The term “marine miscellany” originates from the phrase “productions of the sea of various kinds” in the Book of Documents (Chapter “Tribute of Yu”), describing the variety and diversity of sea creatures. According to Shiqu Baoji Xubian (Continuation of Precious Collection of the Stone Moat Pavilion), Depiction of Various Species of Sea Creatures consists of four volumes, introducing a total of 371 marine species. The volume housed in the National Palace Museum is the fourth, comprising 44 leaves and primarily featuring various shellfish and arthropods. Small regular-script annotations are meticulously written around the illustrations, describing the habitats, shapes, and habits of the marine creatures, supplemented by text praising their characteristics. The annotations also include related legends and practical uses. The preface of the first volume, now preserved in Beijing’s Palace Museum, contains the phrase, “Created by Fujian artist Nie Huang at in the maritime border Diaoaoji during the midsummer of 1698,” revealing the date and the artist’s name. In this text, Nie states that he is a native of Qiantang (present-day Hangzhou, Zhejiang) and travels extensively. In 1687, he painted Crab Album, presenting 30 crab species. He later compiled and redrew his previous Crab Album along with other marine creatures he had observed and heard about, combining them into a single work.
The Japanese Kerria album consists of 12 leaves, pairing 12 poems written by Emperor Kangxi (1654–1722) with 12 flower paintings by court painter Jiang Tingxi (1669–1732). Painted on various colored decorative papers, including powdered paper and gold-flecked paper, the pigments adhered less easily due to the processed surfaces, resulting in the use of rich and vibrant colors. The floral composition appears to have drawn inspiration from illustrations in encyclopedic works such as the Sancai Tuhui. With the artist’s meticulous depiction of the color characteristics of the plants, it is possible to identify the specific flower species.
This painting portrays what appears to be a Taoist ritual scene in which celestial beings, summoned by a Taoist celestial master, enact the thunder rituals.
Lin Liang (fl. around the mid-to-late 15th century) was a court painter of bird-and-flower paintings during the Ming dynasty. He excelled in using the ink wash mogu (boneless) technique to depict birds, creating works with vivid plumage and a sense of natural vitality and rustic elegance. During his time, Lin was celebrated as a master of freehand style bird-and-flower paintings, influencing art circles of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Among his surviving masterpieces, Hawk in Autumn in the National Palace Museum’s collection stands out as a particularly exceptional work.
Wang Meng (1308–1385), one of the Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty, created Recluse on a Flowering Stream, a painting inspired by Eastern Jin dynasty poet Tao Yuanming’s (365–427) The Peach Blossom Spring that describes a fisherman’s serendipitous discovery of an idyllic utopia. The composition divides the scene into foreground and background, where the foreground depicts a secluded dwelling, flanked by blooming peach trees along both riverbanks. On the river, a fishing boat drifts serenely, with a fisherman casting his line and a woman seated inside a cabin. This imagery echoes the poetic allusion in the inscription to Fan Li (536–448 BCE) and Xi Shi retreating together to the Five Lakes in a boat. Behind the village, layered hills rise, separating the village from a distant mountain village and reinforcing the sense of isolation from the mundane world.
This painting is among the few surviving ruled-line painting masterpieces of the Yuan dynasty and vividly portrays a grand dragon boat, along with over ten smaller boats in dragon and tiger shapes, competing in a lively regatta within the imperial garden’s waterway. The scene brims with festive energy, as described in The Eastern Capital: A Dream of Splendor, which recounts similar dragon boat competitions in Jinming Lake in Bianjing, the Northern Song capital. Rendered with meticulous and consistent ink lines, accented with light ink washes, the painting captures the intricate and precise architectural details of the era, preserving invaluable visual records of Yuan wooden structures.
Huang Gongwang (1269–1354), a native of Changshu, was originally named Lu Jian. Orphaned at a young age, he was adopted by an elderly Huang family, leading to him changing his name and style name to Huang Gongwang and Ziju, respectively. Exceptionally intelligent as a child, he began his career at 24 as a clerk in a supervisory office in Hangzhou. At around 48, he was recommended for a position at the Beijing Censorate, but his promising career was abruptly derailed when he was implicated in a case and imprisoned. After his release, he abandoned his official ambitions, becoming a Taoist in the Quanzhen School, adopting the sobriquet “Da Chi,” and dedicating himself to preaching and spiritual practice in Jiangnan. In his spare time, he created numerous masterpieces, gaining fame as a painter and becoming a model for subsequent generations.
This vertical hanging scroll is a panoramic ink painting of bamboo, showcasing a new interpretation of ink-painted bamboo that may have been influenced by the preferences of the Yuan dynasty. The work is signed “Xizhai Daoren,” the sobriquet of Li Kan (1245–1320), a literatus of the early Yuan dynasty. Originally from Hebei, Li served as Minister of Personnel in 1312 during the reign of Emperor Renzong of Song and was later appointed as a grand academician of the Hall of Scholarly Worthies. He was active among the Jiangnan literati. Renowned for his bamboo paintings, several of his colored bamboo scrolls have been preserved. He studied and copied ancient masterpieces diligently, but gradually shedding traditional styles after learning from Wen Tong (1018–1079). Li’s works were highly praised by his contemporaries and widely circulated. He also undertook a diplomatic mission to Annan (modern-day Vietnam) and compiled the Bamboo Manual, which detailed the characteristics and local features of bamboo in various regions, documented his artistic journey, and analyzed different bamboo painting methods.
This painting’s style resembles that of Mt. Kuanglu (by Jing Hao (fl. 10th century)) housed in the National Palace Museum and represents a classic example of Northern Chinese landscape paintings. Although the artwork lacks an author’s signature, Emperor Qianlong (reigned 1735–1796) played a key role in interpreting and naming the work. In 1751, he inscribed a poetic colophon: “Autumn hills in clusters, a serene grass hut, frosty skies high above, and autumn trees in crimson. The Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty gathered here, with the Seven Sages of the Jin dynasty coming and going. Deeply moved by the laborious composition, amid steep cliffs and verdant glades, I hold my new manuscript, reviewing and editing line by line.” Simultaneously, the emperor titled the painting Autumn Mountain by a Song Artist and stamped it with seals such as “Qianlong’s imperial calligraphy” and “appreciated by the emperor.”
This large painting depicts a magnificent procession featuring the three Taoist deities: the Heavenly Official, the Earth Official, and the Water Official. Such a composition, introducing the combined procession of the three deities, is relatively rare among the surviving depictions of the Three Officials, making this painting particularly unique. Images of the Three Officials first appeared in the Tang dynasty and later circulated in various forms such as murals, scrolls, and scripture illustrations. According to records, Taoist followers would hang images of the Three Officials in Taoist altars for meditation and to invoke the deities’ presence during large-scale universal salvation ceremonies. This painting may have been used for related purposes.
The creation of imperial portraits in ancient times symbolized the continuity of dynastic rule, serving as both an emblem of power and one of the most critical visual records for studying historical court attire systems. An example of such is the National Palace Museum’s national treasure, the Seated Portrait of Ningzong’s Empress.