The National Palace Museum Open Data Platform

Exhibit

The beautiful colors of birds and flowers, being full of rhythm and vitality, always evoke images of beauty, which is why artists have repeatedly turned to these subjects over the ages. As early as the Shang and Zhou dynasties, more than two millennia ago, birds and flowers were already important decorative motifs in Chinese art. And by the Tang dynasty, when the techniques of painting began to mature, “birds and flowers” had become an independent category in art. Chinese painting then reached a level of maturity as its methods further developed and diversified in the Five Dynasties period during the tenth century. In the following Song dynasty, “bird-and-flower painting” experienced a heyday, when the idea of “sketching from life” to render forms as they appear in nature became the trend. Then, when literati art took hold in the fourteenth century during the Yuan dynasty, bird-and-flower painting came under its influence, adding the untrammeled aura of monochrome ink to this category. Artists in the subsequent Ming and Qing dynasties followed traditions of the past as bird-and-flower painting in the “sketching ideas” manner blossomed. In all, painters depicting birds and flowers through the ages have constantly engaged in a dialogue with nature. With consummate techniques and spiritual sustenance, they have created a rich and spectacular tapestry of art.

In addition to painting, the subject of birds and flowers also became popular in the textile arts of tapestry and embroidery, crafts with a long history in China and originally used to decorate clothing. But with advancing techniques and rising aesthetic standards, artisans eventually began looking to paintings for inspiration, even taking them as models for their own works. Using nimble needlework and refined textile methods, imitations of painting soon emerged in tapestry. Starting from the Song dynasty, artistic forms of tapestry and embroidery appeared for the sole sake of appreciation, their silk threads manipulated like brushwork to convey extraordinary expressions of art.

Artworks related to birds and flowers in the National Palace Museum collection abound in terms of both quality and quantity. This special selection on the subject has been divided into five sections: “The Vitality of Things Observed,” “The Beauty of Decoration,” “The Ingenuity of Composition,” “The Meaning of Metaphor,” and “The Wonders of Technique.” On the one hand, this exhibit presents the ideas of artists and their skillful arrangements of motifs while also exploring the metaphors and symbols that give further meaning to the unique features and artistic accomplishments of these works. On the other hand, this display of two-dimensional artworks featuring birds and flowers brings painting together with other mediums, such as tapestry, embroidery, lacquered-silk painting, and rare books, offering clues to their interrelationship. As audiences admire these marvelous works, they will hopefully come away with an even greater understanding of the varied facets to birds and flowers in Chinese art.

Exhibit

In ancient China, the mirror was a precious instrument for examining a person’s appearance. In addition to tidying dress and head ornaments, the ancients associated the bright shine of a burnished bronze mirror with the sun and moon, the mirror gradually becoming a religious instrument considered capable of avoiding and expelling inauspicious things. The reflective property of mirrors likewise turned it into a historical metaphor for looking into the past as a way to understand the present.

The ancient Chinese cast mirrors out of bronze, burnishing the flat side to make it shiny while decorating the back with various patterns. With their craftsmanship and aesthetics changing over the ages, mirrors became an important medium expressing the artistic spirit of the period in which they were made and thereby highly treasured. In the Northern Song period (960-1127), the court and scholars alike placed great value on antiquities, driving the trend towards compiling and editing catalogues of ancient artifacts. Emperor Huizong (r. 1101-1126) had the court collection of antiquities organized to include 112 Han and Tang dynasty bronze mirrors in his Xuanhe bogutu (Xuanhe Illustrated Antiquities) of 1123, leading the way for mirrors to become part of catalogues on ancient objects.

Later, in the Qing dynasty, the court amassed a particularly rich collection of ancient mirrors. The Qianlong emperor (r. 1736-1795) followed the idea and pattern of Huizong’s Xuanhe bogutu and had four catalogues of ancient bronzes compiled over the years, including Xiqing gujian (1751), Ningshou jiangu (ca. 1776-1781), Xiqing xujian: jiabian (1793), and Xiqing xujian: yibian (1793), collectively known as “Xiqing sijian.” In addition, a special effort was made to bring together the ancient mirrors mentioned in these catalogues in cases named after their respective catalogues. Serving as display objects at various halls in the Qing palaces, it became a new method for the storage of ancient mirrors. Members of the Qing imperial family not only collected ancient mirrors, they also enjoyed actually using them. Having new stands made for these ancient artifacts, considerable refinement was added to everyday life.

In the sixteenth century, during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, increasing contact between the East and West led to the import of European glass mirrors into China, offering a brand-new experience for the elite. In the Qing dynasty, the Kangxi emperor (r. 1662-1722) even had a glass factory established, and the local production of glass mirrors commenced at that time. Many new materials and techniques were developed to adorn the frames of these glass mirrors, such as painted enamel, carved jade and ivory, and bronze and woodworking. With the spread of glass mirrors in the middle to late Qing dynasty, bronze mirrors were gradually thus displaced as the mainstream.

The scope of this exhibition deals with the appreciation, mounting, and use of mirrors by members of the Qing imperial court and is divided into three sections. The first is “The Art and Antiquity of Mirrors: The Emperor’s Collection of Bronze Mirrors” and represents a selection of ancient mirrors from the Han to Ming dynasties once in the Qing imperial collection. Presenting a continuous development of bronze mirrors over nearly two millennia, this section also includes the understanding of and comments by ancient rulers concerning antique mirrors. The second, “Storage and Display: The Mounting and Cases of Bronze Mirrors,” features such mirror cases and accessories as “Xiqing xujian,” “Xiqing xujian yibian,” and “Ningshou xujian” in the National Palace Museum collection manufactured by the court of the Qianlong emperor. Not only can audiences appreciate the form and beauty of these album-style cases, the background to the production of these mirror cases can also be traced. The third section, “Adorning the Beauty in Mirrors: Reflections of Mirrors in Life,” shows how ancient mirrors functioned in and adorned everyday life as well as presents an array and the development of glass mirrors at the Qing court.

Exhibit

To meet the need for recording information and ideas, unique forms of calligraphy (the art of writing) have been part of the Chinese cultural tradition over the ages. Naturally finding applications in daily life, calligraphy still forms a continuous link between the past and the present. The history and development of calligraphy, long a subject of interest in Chinese culture, is the theme of this exhibit, which presents selections from the National Palace Museum collection arranged in chronological order for a general overview.

The dynasties of the Ch'in (221-206 B.C.E.) and Han (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.) represent a crucial era in the history of Chinese calligraphy. On the one hand, diverse brushed and engraved "ancient writing" and "large seal" script forms were unified into a standard type known as "small seal" script. On the other hand, the process of abbreviating and adapting seal script to form a new one known as "clerical" script (emerging previously in the Eastern Chou dynasty) was finalized, thereby creating the universal script of the Han dynasty. In the trend towards abbreviation and brevity in writing, clerical script continued to evolve and eventually led to the forms of "cursive," "running," and "standard" script. Since changes in writing did not take place overnight, transitional styles and mixed scripts appeared in the chaotic post-Han period, but these transformations over the ages eventually led to established brush strokes and character forms.

The dynasties of the Sui (581-618) and T’ang (618-907) represent another important period in Chinese calligraphy. Unification of the country brought calligraphic styles of the north and south together as brushwork methods became increasingly complete. Starting from this time, standard script would become the universal script down through the ages. In the Sung dynasty (960-1279), the tradition of engraving modelbook copies became a popular way to preserve works of the ancient masters. Sung scholar-artists, however, were not satisfied with just following tradition, for they also considered calligraphy as a means of creative and personal expression.

Yüan dynasty (1279-1368) revivalist calligraphers, in turning to and advocating revivalism, further developed the classical traditions of the Chin and T'ang dynasties. At the same time, notions of artistic freedom and liberation from rules also gained momentum, becoming a main trend in Ming dynasty (1368-1644) calligraphy. Among the diverse manners of that period, the elegant freedom of semi-cursive script is noted in contrast with more conservative manners. Thus, calligraphers standing out with their own styles formed individual paths that were not overshadowed by the mainstream of the time.

Starting in the Ch'ing dynasty (1644-1911), scholars increasingly turned to inspiration from the rich resource of ancient works inscribed with seal and clerical script. Influenced by an atmosphere of careful studies, Ch'ing scholars became familiar with steles and helped create a trend in calligraphy that complemented the Modelbook school. Thus, the Stele school formed yet another link between past and present in the approach to tradition, in which seal and clerical script became sources of innovation and new direction in Chinese calligraphy.

Exhibit

The history of Chinese painting can be compared to a symphony. The styles and traditions in figure, landscape, and bird-and-flower painting have formed themes that continue to blend to this day into a single piece of music. Painters through the ages have made up this "orchestra," composing and performing many movements and variations within this tradition.

It was from the Six Dynasties (222-589) to the Tang dynasty (618-907) that the foundations of figure painting were gradually established by such major artists as Gu Kaizhi and Wu Daozi. Modes of landscape painting then took shape in the Five Dynasties period (907-960) with variations based on geographic distinctions. For example, Jing Hao and Guan Tong depicted the drier and monumental peaks to the north while Dong Yuan and Juran represented the lush and rolling hills to the south in Jiangnan. In bird-and-flower painting, the noble Tang court manner was passed down in Sichuan through Huang Quan's style, which contrasts with that of Xu Xi in the Jiangnan area.

In the Song dynasty (960-1279), landscape painters such as Fan Kuan, Guo Xi, and Li Tang created new manners based on previous traditions. The transition in compositional arrangement from grand mountains to intimate scenery also reflected in part the political, cultural, and economic shift to the south. Guided by the taste of the emperor, painters at the court academy focused on observing nature combined with "poetic sentiment" to reinforce the expression of both subject and artist. Painters were also inspired by things around them, leading even to the depiction of technical and architectural elements in the late eleventh century. The focus on poetic sentiment led to the combination of painting, poetry, and calligraphy (the "Three Perfections") in the same work (often as an album leaf or fan) by the Southern Song (1127-1279). Scholars earlier in the Northern Song (960-1126) thought that painting as an art had to go beyond just the "appearance of forms" in order to express the ideas and cultivation of the artist. This became the foundation of the movement known as literati (scholar) painting.

The goal of literati painters in the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368), including Zhao Mengfu and the Four Yuan Masters (Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, Ni Zan, and Wang Meng), was in part to revive the antiquity of the Tang and Northern Song as a starting point for personal expression. This variation on revivalism transformed these old "melodies" into new and personal tunes, some of which gradually developed into important traditions of their own in the Ming and Qing dynasties. As in poetry and calligraphy, the focus on personal cultivation became an integral part of expression in painting.

Starting from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), painting often became distinguished into local schools that formed important clusters in the history of art. The styles of "Wu School" artists in the Suzhou area, for example, were based on the cultivated approaches of scholar painting by the Four Yuan Masters. The "Zhe School" consisted mostly of painters from the Zhejiang and Fujian areas; also active at court, they created a direct and liberated manner of monochrome ink painting based on Southern Song models.

The late Ming master Dong Qichang from Songjiang and the Four Wangs (Wang Shimin, Wang Jian, Wang Hui, and Wang Yuanqi) of the early Qing dynasty (1644-1911) adopted the lofty literati goal of unifying certain ancient styles into a "grand synthesis" so that all in mind and nature could be rendered with brush and ink. The result was the vastly influential "Orthodox School," which was supported by the Manchu Qing emperors. The court also took an interest in Western painting techniques (brought by European missionaries) that involved volume and perspective, which became known to and used by some Chinese painters to create a fused style. Outside the court, the major commercial city of Yangzhou developed the trend toward individualism to become a center for "eccentric" yet professional painters. It also spread to Shanghai, where the styles of artists were also inspired by "non-orthodox" manners, which themselves became models for later artists.

Thus, throughout the ages, a hallmark of Chinese painting has been the pursuit of individuality and innovation within the framework of one's "symphonic" heritage. This exhibition represents a selection of individual "performances" from the Museum collection arranged in chronological order in order to provide an overview of some major traditions and movements in Chinese painting.

Exhibit

Throughout the course of Chinese history, many people have extolled the free and easy feeling of fish swimming leisurely in the water. During the Spring and Autumn period, for example, Duke Yin (ruler of the state of Lu) is recorded as having broken with protocol by insisting on visiting a frontier area just to appreciate how people catch fish. And from the Warring States era comes the “Debate on the Hao Bridge” between Zhuangzi and Huishi about “The Joy of Fish,” a story familiar to many. In ancient Chinese art, depictions of fish range from painted pottery of the Neolithic Age to silk painting of the Pre-Qin era and illustrated bricks and tiles of the Han dynasty. And by the twelfth century, the imperial Xuanhe Painting Catalogue had divided painting into ten subjects, one of them being “Dragons and Fish.”

The National Palace Museum has a considerable collection of paintings with lively and interesting depictions of fish. “School of Fish Frolicking Among Water Plants” attributed to Liu Cai of the Song dynasty, for instance, shows fish swimming leisurely among plants. In “Cat with Fish and Aquatic Plants” by Shen Zhenlin of the Qing dynasty, the artist portrays a goldfish swimming to-wards a cat and oblivious to the danger. In terms of sheer skill in painting, Lang Shining (Giuseppe Castiglione) of the Qing dynasty, with his opaque colors and Western techniques, delicately expresses in his “Fish and Aquatic Plants” the surface sheen of fish and the volume of their features, placing this work squarely in the “sketching from life” tradition. Ma Hezhi’s “Clear Stream and Calling Crane” from the Song dynasty, on the other hand, represents the style known as “sketching ideas,” in which just a few strokes of the brush have been used here to suggest a school of fish flitting about the waters. Throughout the ages, Chinese paintings have not only portrayed images and actions of various kinds of fish, they also have often conveyed much auspicious meaning as well. For example, in the twentieth century, Qi Baishi in his “Great Prosperity for Many Years” depicted catfish and mandarin fish as an auspicious pun for the title, the names of these two fish in Chinese being homophones for “year” and “prosperity,” respectively.

The year 2015 marks the ninetieth anniversary of the National Palace Museum, and the Department of Painting and Calligraphy is holding a series of special exhibitions in celebration. This exhibit is part of its first rotation and coincides with the Chinese New Year, the offering of masterpieces with depictions of fish serving as an auspicious blessing for the New Year in the hope that all have years of plenty to come.

Exhibit

To meet the need for recording information and ideas, unique forms of calligraphy (the art of writing) have been part of the Chinese cultural tradition over the ages. Naturally finding applications in daily life, calligraphy still forms a continuous link between the past and the present. The history and development of calligraphy, long a subject of interest in Chinese culture, is the theme of this exhibit, which presents selections from the National Palace Museum collection arranged in chronological order for a general overview.

The dynasties of the Ch'in (221-206 B.C.E.) and Han (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.) represent a crucial era in the history of Chinese calligraphy. On the one hand, diverse brushed and engraved "ancient writing" and "large seal" script forms were unified into a standard type known as "small seal" script. On the other hand, the process of abbreviating and adapting seal script to form a new one known as "clerical" script (emerging previously in the Eastern Chou dynasty) was finalized, thereby creating the universal script of the Han dynasty. In the trend towards abbreviation and brevity in writing, clerical script continued to evolve and eventually led to the forms of "cursive," "running," and "standard" script. Since changes in writing did not take place overnight, transitional styles and mixed scripts appeared in the chaotic post-Han period, but these transformations over the ages eventually led to established brush strokes and character forms.

The dynasties of the Sui (581-618) and T’ang (618-907) represent another important period in Chinese calligraphy. Unification of the country brought calligraphic styles of the north and south together as brushwork methods became increasingly complete. Starting from this time, standard script would become the universal script down through the ages. In the Sung dynasty (960-1279), the tradition of engraving modelbook copies became a popular way to preserve works of the ancient masters. Sung scholar-artists, however, were not satisfied with just following tradition, for they also considered calligraphy as a means of creative and personal expression.

Yüan dynasty (1279-1368) revivalist calligraphers, in turning to and advocating revivalism, further developed the classical traditions of the Chin and T'ang dynasties. At the same time, notions of artistic freedom and liberation from rules also gained momentum, becoming a main trend in Ming dynasty (1368-1644) calligraphy. Among the diverse manners of that period, the elegant freedom of semi-cursive script is noted in contrast with more conservative manners. Thus, calligraphers standing out with their own styles formed individual paths that were not overshadowed by the mainstream of the time.

Starting in the Ch'ing dynasty (1644-1911), scholars increasingly turned to inspiration from the rich resource of ancient works inscribed with seal and clerical script. Influenced by an atmosphere of careful studies, Ch'ing scholars became familiar with steles and helped create a trend in calligraphy that complemented the Modelbook school. Thus, the Stele school formed yet another link between past and present in the approach to tradition, in which seal and clerical script became sources of innovation and new direction in Chinese calligraphy.