Mandalas on the Scripture Protecting Boards
On the upper and lower inner scripture protecting boards of the Tibetan Dragon Canon (Longzangjing) are painted a corpus of Tibetan Buddhist polychrome images that are the earliest extant of their kind, the most numerous, and among the most technically accomplished, totaling 756 deities. This section guides visitors in understanding the distinctive “Miniatures in Indo-Tibetan Style” (xitian fanxiang) conveyed by these religious representations. The arrangement of the figures on the boards is far from decorative; rather, it adheres strictly to the ritual prescriptions of Esoteric Buddhism, constructing a highly ordered Mandala system.
Through selected examples from the painted boards, this section analyzes the underlying logic governing the iconographic program of the inner boards, including the placement of various Buddhas, bodhisattvas, lineage masters, as well as the configuration of tantric deities and dharma protector. These images synthesize the Tibetan thangka tradition with painting techniques from the Chinese cultural sphere. For Mongol aristocratic audiences of the time—who were often more attuned to visual modes of engagement—this “visualized” Buddhist canon conveyed the sacred essence of the teachings with striking immediacy, demonstrating the Qing court’s firm command of the symbolic and doctrinal power of Buddhism. Its efficacy in dissemination, in some respects, even surpassed that of the textual canon itself.
The uniqueness and rarity of the imagery on the Inner Scripture Protecting Boards
The pictorial program of the Tibetan Dragon Canon (Longzangjing) represents not only a pinnacle of early Qing court art, but also a crucial bridge between earlier traditions and later developments. More importantly, it established an authoritative and standardized model for imperial Buddhist imagery. The iconographic conventions and deity groupings formulated in the Tibetan Dragon Canon served as prototypes and points of reference for subsequent Buddhist artistic projects sponsored by the Qing court, exerting a lasting influence throughout the dynasty. These include the Mongolian Kangyur printed during the late Kangxi reign, the Tibetan Kangyur reproduced under the Qianlong Emperor, and the sculptural and thangka programs of the imperial Buddhist temples known as the “Six-Class Buddhist Temple (Liupin Folou),” such as the Fenhua Lou and Baoxiang Lou.
Among the most frequently cited iconographic sources in Himalayan art studies today is the Collection of Five Hundred Buddhas (bris sku mthon ba don ldan). This illustrated compendium is largely based on the Precious Source of Sādhanas from the Ocean of Yidams (yi dam rgya mtsho’i sgrub thabs rin chen ’byung gnas), compiled by the seventeenth-century Jonang master Taranatha. Commonly known as the Hundred Sādhanas from the Precious Source, the work records the principal deities of various Buddhist lineages through a combination of text and image.
The Tibetan Dragon Canon surpasses the Collection of Five Hundred Buddhas in two significant respects. First is its date. Completed in 1669, the eighth year of the Kangxi reign, the painted imagery of the Tibetan Dragon Canon predates the nineteenth-century compilation of the Collection of Five Hundred Buddha by approximately two centuries. It remains the earliest and most completely preserved painted set of Buddhist scripture boards known to survive. Second is its scale. The upper and lower protective boards of the Tibetan Dragon Canon contain a total of 756 painted images. Even after eliminating repeated names, the corpus still comprises 526 distinct deities, forming a far more extensive iconographic network.
The imagery on the protective boards also demonstrates the extraordinary resources mobilized by the early Qing court—resources beyond the reach of most monasteries in Tibet and Mongolia. The paintings employ rare natural mineral pigments, while the surrounding shrine frames are richly embellished with gold. As a result, the colors remain remarkably vibrant and luminous more than three centuries after their creation. Stylistically, the paintings embody a distinctive synthesis of Chinese and Tibetan traditions. The postures, attributes, and iconographic details of the deities strictly follow Tibetan Buddhist conventions, while the rendering of auspicious clouds, floral motifs, and drapery folds incorporates elements of Qing court painting. In addition to their meticulous brushwork and rich coloration, the figures are further adorned with inlaid gemstones and other precious materials. Such sumptuous techniques are characteristic of the Qing imperial workshops and are rarely encountered outside the court.
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Diameter 15 cm
Gufa 000829-000831This cloisonné enamel dish from the Qianlong period is decorated at its center with the emblem of the Tenfold Sovereignty (rnam bcu dbang ldan, transliterated as Nangju Wangdan), identical to the motif depicted on the reverse of the upper inner scripture board of the Tibetan Dragon Canon (Longzangjing). The term “Tenfold Sovereignty” refers to the ten forms of mastery attained by bodhisattvas on the ten stages (daśabhūmi) of the Mahāyāna path: mastery over lifespan, mind, requisites, karma, rebirth, vows, liberation, spiritual powers, the Dharma, and wisdom.
This motif originates from the Kālacakra Tantra and is composed of the seed syllables (bīja) of the Kālacakra mantra. It embodies the threefold system of Kālacakra cosmology, encompassing the outer Kālacakra (the universe), the inner Kālacakra (the human body), and the alternative Kālacakra (esoteric practice). The design is formed by ten elements arranged vertically in the Rañjanā script, consisting of seven Sanskrit letters surmounted by three symbolic signs. The seven letters—ya, ra, va, la, ma, kṣa, and ha—correspond respectively to the elements of wind, fire, water, and earth, as well as the Desire Realm, Form Realm, and Formless Realm.
Above these letters appear three additional symbols: the “bindu,” represented by a dot or solar disc, symbolizing the Buddha’s Body Vajra and the sun; the “ardhacandra,” or crescent moon, symbolizing the Buddha’s Speech Vajra and the moon; and the “nāda,” the flame-like curl at the summit, symbolizing the Buddha’s Mind Vajra and the principle of emptiness. Together, these ten components form a visual expression of the Kālacakra worldview, integrating cosmic order, the structure of the human body, and the path of esoteric realization within a single sacred emblem.
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Qing dynasty (1644-1912)
H: 25.7 cm; W: 寬14.8 cm
Guza 000703In Tibetan Buddhism, the Viśvavajra (rdo rje rgya gram), commonly known as the crossed vajra or karma vajra, is one of the most distinctive ritual implements and symbolic motifs. It is formed by two vajras joined at right angles, creating a cross-shaped configuration.
The Viśvavajra serves as the samaya emblem of Amoghasiddhi, the Buddha of the North, who embodies the Wisdom of Accomplishment and presides over the successful completion of all enlightened activities. At the same time, the Viśvavajra may be understood as a symbolic representation of the Five Buddha Mandala, functioning as a condensed image of the entire sacred cosmos. In ritual practice, the crossed vajra also serves as a seal of consecration. After the completion of the enshrinement rites for a Buddhist image, the copper plate used to seal the base is often engraved with a crossed vajra motif, signifying that the sacred blessings and the presence of the Buddhas embodied within the image have been securely enclosed and protected. The crossed vajra depicted on the reverse side of the lower inner protective board of the Tibetan Dragon Canon (Longzangjing) should likewise be understood in this context, functioning as a symbolic seal that safeguards and preserves the sanctity of the Buddha’s teachings contained within the scripture.
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Vajra Bell and Vajra
Qing dynasty (1644-1912)
Bell: Height 18.2 cm, Diameter 10.1 cm
Vajra: Length 14.1 cm
Box: Height 22 cm, Width 16 cm
Guza 712-713This vajra bell and Vajra set is housed in separate leather cases. Ink inscriptions in Chinese, Manchu, Mongolian, and Tibetan are preserved on the inner lids of the cases, recording that the ritual implements were successively used by the Second Dalai Lama (1475-1542), the Third Dalai Lama (1543-1588), and the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617-1682). The set was most likely presented to the Qing court as a tribute offering during the eighteenth century.
The final sentence of the Chinese inscription contains a mistranslation and should more accurately be rendered as: “A reconsecrated karma gan dril endowed with blessings.” The term “Karma Gan Dril” refers to a type of vajra bell and vajra said to have been bestowed by the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty upon the Fifth Karmapa, Deshin Shekpa (Karma pa de bzhin gshegs pa, 1384-1415), through whom it was introduced into Tibet. Its distinguishing feature is the presence of eight Sanskrit seed syllables inscribed within the lotus-petal panels of the bell. Tibetan reproductions, described as “recast” versions, replaced these Sanskrit letters with Tibetan script.
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Kangling human tibia trumpet with brass mounting
Qing dynasty (1644-1912)
H: 32 cm
Guza 001330-001331In the Highest Yoga Tantra traditions of Tibetan Vajrayāna Buddhism, the human tibia trumpet (rkang gling, pronounced “kangling”) is a ritual instrument of striking visual power and profound symbolic meaning. Its significance is rooted in tantric understandings of death, impermanence, and emptiness, transforming what is ordinarily feared into a vehicle for spiritual realization. The sound it produces is described as piercing and mournful, yet it signifies the non-duality of emptiness and compassion as the voice of the Dharma. Within ritual contexts, this sound is believed to subdue worldly spirits and obstructive forces by instilling fear; on a deeper level of practice, it is said to shatter the practitioner’s inner ignorance and delusion.
In iconography of Highest Yoga Tantra deities and wrathful protectors—such as Mahākāla—this human tibia trumpet may be shown held in the mouth or hand, signifying transcendence of samsara and the subjugation of all obstacles through wrathful compassion. The “charnel ground ritual implements” worn by such deities, including skull cups (kapāla) and bone ornaments, likewise symbolize the transformation of death and impurity into the means of enlightenment. The present image depicts the auspicious protector (dpal mgon) on the lower inner scripture board of the secret section fascicle Ka, identified as an emanation of Mahākāla.
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Khatvanga and Banner Streamer
Qing dynasty (1644-1912)
H: 45.3 cm
Guza 001969Among the ritual implements of Vajrayāna Buddhism, the Khaṭvāṅga, often translated as a “tantric staff” or “skull staff,” is one of the most symbolically complex and esoterically significant attributes. It serves as a distinctive emblem of major tantric deities and accomplished masters, including Padmasambhava, Cakrasaṃvara, and Vajravārāhī. In tantric Buddhism, the Khaṭvāṅga is not merely a weapon for subduing obstacles; rather, it embodies the highest realization of Mahāmudrā and the union of bliss and emptiness.
The uppermost portion of a Khaṭvāṅga is typically crowned by a trident, symbolizing either the Three Jewels—the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha—or the destruction of the afflictions associated with the three realms of existence. A half vajra is sometimes placed at the center of the trident. The example in the Museum’s collection does not retain a trident, and the vajra itself serves as the principal finial. Below this appear three heads arranged in sequence, representing the attainment of the Buddha’s Three Bodies (trikāya). The dry skull symbolizes the formless Dharma Body (dharmakāya); the decaying head represents the Enjoyment Body (saṃbhogakāya), adorned with the marks of perfection; and the freshly severed head signifies the Emanation Body (nirmāṇakāya), through which enlightened beings manifest to liberate sentient beings. These three heads also symbolize the transformation of the three poisons—attachment, anger, and ignorance—into ultimate wisdom. Beneath the heads is a crossed vajra set upon a long-life vase filled with the nectar of immortality. The vase symbolizes the attainment of the vidyādhara, the “holder of realization,” and the transcendence of death, while also representing the fulfillment of aspirations and spiritual accomplishments. Suspended at the junction between the crossed vajra and the vase are various ornaments and ritual attachments. On the Museum’s example, these take the form of a gold-brocaded banner decorated along its edges with pearls, coral beads, and pendant ornaments of red and blue gemstones, further enhancing the staff’s status as both a sacred ritual implement and a symbol of tantric accomplishment.
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