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Diversity in Art

In the twelfth lunar month of the eighth year in the Zhiyuan reign (1271), Kublai Khan changed the name of his country from "Ikh Mongol Uls (Great Mongolian Nation)" to the "Great Yuan," becoming the first emperor of the Yuan dynasty. Afterwards, the Yuan would go on to conquer the Southern Song and control Mongolia south of the Gobi. Taking the lands originally occupied by the Jin dynasty and Western Xia, the Mongol Empire came to incorporate a unique entity known as the Mongol Yuan. Not until the eighth month of 1368, when Ming dynasty troops entered the Yuan capital of Dadu and Emperor Shundi fled north, did the "Yuan dynasty" in Chinese history come to a close.

During this period, a large number of artisans came to the Yuan court from various places in Central Asia. Various cultures commingled, the pluralism resulting from their interaction manifested in the forms of art produced at the time. This section of the exhibit takes a look at the art of the Chinese scholar Zhao Mengfu and his wife, Guan Daosheng, as well as the artistic heritage of their son, Zhao Yong, also touching on efforts in traditional painting by such reclusive artists as Wu Zhen and Ni Zan. Just as important, it examines new aspects in painting and calligraphy introduced by such artists of non-Chinese background as Gao Kegong and Guan Yunshi.

In terms of religion, Tibetan Buddhism flourished in the Yuan dynasty under the patronage of the Mongols. "Thangka of the Taklung Monastery Abbot Tashi Pal," for example, is representative of the Tibetan style of painting at that time. New combinations of elements are also seen in textiles of the period, such as "Image for the New Year," which had been previously attributed to the Song dynasty. And though the textile of "Ratnasaṃbhava" may date later than the Yuan dynasty, its motifs point to cultural exchange in the Mongol Yuan period continuing into the early Ming dynasty. These and other works reveal the new and unique forms of cultural diversity in the Mongol Yuan era.

Kublai Khan Hunting
Rotation 1 10/6-11/15

Liu Guandao (fl. latter half of the 13^th c.), Yuan dynasty
Hanging scroll, ink and colors on silk, 182.9 x 104.1 cm

This painting depicts the Yuan dynasty emperor Shizu, better known as Kublai Khan, on an outing with his empress, Chabi, and a retinue. They are shown on a hunting trip in a vast desert. Here, Kublai Khan is wearing red robes with dragon décor and an outer coat of white fur decorated with black trim. His consort has a white robe with ornamental gold decoration that represents a kind of gold-brocaded textile favored by nobility in the Mongol Yuan period.

The imperial couple is accompanied by figures in various poses. One of them bends a bow, another holds a falcon, and one has a hunting leopard. The pronounced facial features of the men indicate they belong to various ethnicities, this hunting scene amply demonstrating the idea of cultural pluralism and ethnic integration at the Yuan court. The scroll is dated by the artist, Liu Guandao, to 1280, a year after he had been rewarded for painting with a post in the Imperial Wardrobe Service.

Bust Portrait of the Yuan Emperor Wenzong

Anonymous, Yuan dynasty (1279-1368)
Album leaf, ink and colors on silk, 59.2 x 47 cm

This painting is from the seventh leaf in the album "Bust Portraits of Yuan Dynasty Emperors." Wenzong (1304-1332), whose Mongolian name was Tugh Temür, was the son of Emperor Wuzong (Külüg Khan). After the Taiding emperor (Yesün Temür) passed away, he was installed as ruler, but not long thereafter he abdicated in favor of his elder brother (Kuśala), who became Emperor Mingzong (Khutughtu Khan). However, Tugh Temür was soon restored as emperor and ruled for five years; he married the daughter of Princess Sengge Ragi in 1324. Before ascending the throne, he lived in Jinling for three years and associated with Confucian scholars in the Jiangnan region. After becoming emperor, he established the Kuizhang Pavilion and became known as one of the strongest proponents of Confucian culture among the Mongol Yuan rulers.

This portrait of Wenzong was remounted much later by the Qing dynasty court. On the left is an inscription in three characters for "Jiyatu" using the new phonetic system for Mongolian devised in the Qianlong reign during the eighteenth century. The leaf was calligraphed in approximately 1815.

Bust Portraits of Yuan Dynasty Imperial Consorts

Anonymous, Yuan dynasty (1279-1368)
Album leaf, ink and colors on silk, 61.2x47.7cm

This album of "Bust Portraits of Yuan Dynasty Imperial Consorts" as it survives today includes eight leaves. The first seven feature portraits on the left and right sides, while the eighth only has one portrait on the right, making for a total of fifteen consorts. This set was remounted during the eighteenth century in the Qing dynasty. Although the current labels name the individual consorts, some have fallen off and are lost, making identification difficult.

One of the most famous portraits in the album, that of Kublai Khan's consort, Chabi, is currently on overseas loan in the United States for exhibit and not available for display. On the left side of the leaf with Chabi's portrait is the consort of Emperor Shundi (Togon Temür), the mother of Princess Sengge Ragi. The three leaves on display here include five portraits. One is of Nahan, Emperor Yingzong's (Gegeen Khan) consort, but the other four are missing the labels, so their identities are unknown. The tall decorated headwear worn by the consorts is known as a gugu crown, and the ladies are all shown wearing robes woven with gold strands.

Traveling by Horseback in a Spring Countryside

Zhao Yong (1289-after 1360), Yuan dynasty
Hanging scroll, ink and colors on silk, 88 x 51.1 cm

Zhao Yong was the second son of the famous Yuan dynasty scholar-official artist Zhao Mengfu (1254-1322) and studied the family tradition of painting and calligraphy. Zhao Yong excelled at landscape, figure, and saddled-horse painting.

This hanging scroll represents a traditional composition of a figure under a tree. The man on horseback wears a red robe and holds a bow in his left hand, on which his right hand rests. The horse has come to a stop below a large tree as he turns to look back. The stout white steed seems to have been reined in, its head bent down slightly to the side. Its right hind leg is also raised, making this a portrait of stillness and movement for both figure and animal. Zhao Yong not only learned painting in the family tradition but also pursued revivalism, the tree leaves depicted here all outlined with ink lines to which blue-and-green coloring was added, the simple quality revealing archaic notions about Tang dynasty art.

Verdant Mountains and White Clouds

Gao Kegong (1248-1310), Yuan dynasty
Hanging scroll, ink and light colors on silk, 188 x 110.5 cm

Gao Kegong, a Uighur from the Western Regions of China, was one of the most representative non-ethnic Chinese to take part in the traditional high arts of China. Only after being sent to the south at the age of 42 to serve as an official did he begin to learn painting; Zhao Mengfu may have given him instruction, but the northern scholar Li Kan was an even more important influence on him.

This hanging scroll reveals Gao Kegong's revivalist manner, the mountains representing a fusion of the brush methods from Northern Song monumental landscape painting with those of Dong Yuan and Juran in the Jiangnan area. The clouds enveloping the foothills in the middleground further reveal elements of landscape painting by Mi Fu and Mi Youren, the blue-and-green coloring also hinting at its distant origins in Tang dynasty landscape painting. Histories in art generally indicate that Gao Kegong studied the style of cloudy mountains practiced by the Mi Family, but he actually incorporated the solidity of Northern Song monumental painting as well, indicating an openness for classical modes of expression in Chinese art.

Peace Throughout the Four Seasons

Li Kan (1245-1320), Yuan dynasty
Hanging scroll, ink on silk, 131.4 x 51.1 cm

Li Kan, whose ancestors came from Hebei, was a scholar of the early Yuan dynasty who became Minister of Personnel in 1312, the first year of the Huangqing reign of Emperor Renzong (Buyantu Khan). He was appointed as a Grand Academician of Scholarly Worthies (Jixian), becoming highly esteemed at court along with Zhao Mengfu. Li also excelled at painting bamboo and rocks, publishing a manual on depicting bamboo and becoming a leading force in a new direction for this subject in the Mongol Yuan period.

This hanging scroll depicts four stalks of bamboo on a gentle slope, the arrangement on the ground front and back clearly indicated. The artist used shades of light and dark ink to express the spatial relationship between the leaves, which above intermingle in a dense and complex mass. The result is a beautiful and dazzling visual effect. Li Kan reportedly was also an envoy to the state of Cochin (Vietnam), where observed large tracts of bamboo, providing him with the means to surpass the ancients when it came to painting this subject.

After Guo Xi's "Travelers in Autumn Mountains"

Tang Di (1287-1355), Yuan dynasty
Hanging scroll, ink and light colors on silk, 151.9 x 103.7 cm

Tang Di was from Wuxing; although recorded as having studied painting under Zhao Mengfu, his style actually derived from the Li-Guo landscape tradition of Li Cheng and Guo Xi in the Northern Song. Recommended by Ma Xu, a northern scholar, he painted an imperial screen at the Jiaxi Hall for the Yuan emperor Renzong (Buyantu Khan). Receiving the admiration of the emperor, he was appointed as Expectant Official of the Jixian Academy (of Scholarly Worthies), thereby formally entering the Yuan court.

This painting has the main mountain complex situated in the middle with peaks and valleys on either side. In the foreground are bulbous landscape forms and buildings behind, the composition bearing a likeness to that found in Guo Xi's "Early Spring" also in this exhibit, suggesting a relationship between the two in way or another. However, the brushwork and structural arrangement of the mountains here have replaced the nimble washes of ink in Guo Xi's painting with more lines, the differentiation between rock forms also more distinct. Thus, it portrays a new direction in the Li-Guo landscape tradition promoted by northern scholars at the time.

Two Pine Trees

Cao Zhibai (1272-1355), Yuan dynasty
Hanging scroll, ink on silk, 132.1 x 57.4 cm

Cao Zhibai, style name Yunxi, depicted in the foreground of this painting two large pine trees. In the background is a vast expanse, making this work a continuation of the Li Cheng tradition of wintry trees against a level distance.

On the painting is an inscription by the artist that reads, "On the 'Human Day' (7th day of the 1st lunar month) in the second year of the Tianli reign (February 6, 1329), Yunxi did this screen of pine trees to be sent to Shimo Boshan as an expression of remembrance." Shimo Boshan (1281-1347) was an influential Khitan official who was the great-grandson of Shimo Yexian, a meritorious figure in the Mongol defeat of the Jin dynasty. Not long beforehand, Shimo Boshan relinquished his post at court to become Commander of Fujian. Cao Zhibai probably used the imagery of two stalwart pines reaching to the skies to praise the virtue and uprightness of Boshan. During the Dade reign (1297-1307), Cao Zhibai served as Instructor at Kunshan. However, soon afterwards he resigned and went into reclusion; he was a figure who maintained relations with scholars from different ethnic backgrounds.

Landscape

Cao Zhibai (1272-1355), Yuan dynasty
Album leaf, ink on paper, 68.1 x 34.3 cm

Cao Zhibai, a native of Huating, maintained close relations with other scholars and often reciprocated with them in painting and poetry. At the top of this work are five inscriptions by scholars of the Yuan dynasty, including "Wang Yuanzhang," another name for Wang Mian (?-1359), the famous painter of plum blossoms. "Suichang shanren" here also refers to Zheng Yuanyou (1292-1364). The two were Jiangnan literati active in the middle to later part of the Yuan dynasty and often wrote poems of inscription on paintings as a form of reciprocation. They were also frequent visitors at elegant gatherings held at the Jade Mountain (Yushan) Thatched Hall of the famous Jiangnan literatus Gu Ying (1310-1369).

This painting depicts landscape elements divided by a stretch of water, the mountains rendered in ink and appearing almost dripping wet. In the foreground are two pines that rise upwards, the brushwork and forms deriving from the style associated with the Li-Guo tradition of the Northern Song period. Scorched ink was added to highlight the main elements, creating a new and interesting interpretation in ink of the Li-Guo manner during the Yuan dynasty.

Scroll Brocade of Collected Yuan Paintings

Various artists, Yuan dynasty (1279-1368)
Handscroll, ink (and [light] colors) on paper, 23-27 x 61.5-113.7 cm

This long handscroll is actually a collection of eight individual paintings by various Yuan dynasty artists. The seals indicate that the works were once in the possession of the Ming collector Xiang Yuanbian; they were mounted together in this handscroll after entering the imperial Qing collection. The frontispiece bears an imperial inscription dated to the fourteenth year of the Qianlong reign (1749), suggesting the latest date for the remounting. The separating sections of silk also bear inscriptions by poet-officials at the Qing court.

The eight paintings include those by Zhao Mengfu, Guan Daosheng, Ni Zan, Wu Zhen, Ma Wan, Zhao Yuan, Lin Juan'a, and Zhuang Lin. Despite the difference in their periods of activity and the varied subjects, the scroll is a masterful collection of landscape and bamboo-and-rock paintings from the Yuan dynasty. For this exhibit, the front half is on display for the first rotation, including the works by Zhao Mengfu, Guan Daosheng, Ni Zan, and Wu Zhen, followed in the second with those by Ma Wan, Zhao Yuan, Lin Juan'a, and Zhuang Lin.

Four Paragons of Filial Piety

Anonymous, Yuan dynasty (1279-1368)
Handscroll, ink and colors on silk, 38.9 x 502.7 cm

This handscroll illustrates four stories of filial piety rendered as paintings alternating with texts. The first story depicts the wife of Wang Wuzi cutting flesh from her thigh to cook a medicinal broth and cure her mother-in-law's illness. The second illustrates the story of Lu Ji of the Three Kingdoms period taking oranges at a banquet held by Yuan Shu and presenting them to his mother, who was fond of the fruit. The third shows Wang Xiang of the Jin dynasty lying on ice to melt it and catch carp to feed his ill mother. The fourth story is about Cao E of the Eastern Han dynasty throwing herself into a river where her father had drowned in order to find his corpse. After three days, both of their bodies were found and that of Cao was holding onto her father's. At the end of the handscroll is a postscript by Li Jujing discussing the essence of filial piety. The figures are rendered mostly with lines fine yet strong.

Colophon to "Two Horses"

Guan Yunshi (1286-1324), Yuan dynasty
Handscroll, ink on paper, 19 x 81.5 cm

Guan Yunshi, a member of the Uighur ethnic group, was originally named Xiao Yunshi Haiya (Qaya). His grandfather, Prince Ariq-Qaya, was a meritorious official in the Mongol defeat of the Song dynasty. His father adopted the name Guan Zhige, so Yunshi took Guan as his surname. He served the Yuan as Brigade Daruhachi of Huainan and Huaibei; at court he was a Hanlin Academician-in-Waiting, later retiring from officialdom and living in Qiantang for more than ten years. Records from the Yuan dynasty indicate that he excelled at literature and calligraphy, closely associating with recluse scholars of the Jiangnan region in the south.

This work was written in cursive script, the forms tending towards slenderness but strong and with a loose structure. The soft and rounded strokes also have a vigorous and direct manner. The lifting of the brush exhibits quick flicking, the force mostly rapid and moving. The work as a whole has unusual form and dynamism. This style with its unbridled bravura contrasts with the meticulous beauty of strokes and characters practiced in the calligraphy of Zhao Mengfu, an elder contemporary of Guan Yunshi.

Heavenly Petals Falling on an Indian Monk

Anonymous, Yuan dynasty (1279-1368)
Hanging scroll, ink and colors on silk, 175.3 x 98.2 cm

This painting depicts a bearded monk sitting on a rock and reciting from a sutra scroll. With very dark skin, prominent facial features, and earrings, he does not appear to be an ethnic Han Chinese.

The artist depicted the drapery folds of the figure with rounded and turning lines that are strong and powerful nonetheless. The different textures used for the decorative clothing, falling petals, and white monkey are all meticulously rendered. The background landscape enveloped in clouds and mists is portrayed in monochrome ink, while the clothes and flowers are painted with bright colors, creating for a strong contrast. This work bears neither seal nor signature of the artist, but the style of the figure accords with the tradition of lohan figures painted as foreign-looking monks in the Yuan dynasty.

Ratnasaṃbhava

Anonymous, attributed as Song dynasty (960-1279)
Hanging scroll, silk tapestry, 84.6 x 57.1 cm

This hanging scroll was given the title "Silk Tapestry of Ratnasaṃbhava" in the third edition of Treasured Cases of the Stone Moat, the catalogue of artworks in the collection of the Qing dynasty court. However, close examination of the details shows that it was actually done in brocade weaving. Some of the decoration has already worn off but it nonetheless still retains the complete dark-blue background brocade. A few of the weft threads also still have traces of gold, indicating that the work originally included much woven gold.

The scroll depicts Ratnasaṃbhava, the Buddha of the South for one of the cardinal directions. The figure's right hand is in the "bestowing" gesture (mudra), while the left hand holds onto the robe in the "wish-granting" mudra. The body of this buddha is golden yellow and appears upon a Treasure Horse, the deity shown seated on a lotus pedestal. On both sides of the body halo are six auspicious accompanying creatures: the elephant, flying horse, makara, naga, and garuda. These, however, are motifs related more to depictions from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

Image for the New Year

Anonymous, attributed as Song dynasty (960-1279)
Hanging scroll, embroidered silk gauze , 216.6 x 63.8 cm

Although the original title of this work uses the term "embroidered tapestry," examination of the technique reveals differences with other tapestries. The forms, in fact, were woven in gauze silk directly with some of the decoration embellished using embroidery. A portion of the background textile is done in the form of a web-like gauze with threads of various colors extending horizontally across the surface to create the forms. The weaving is dense, the outlines of the forms unlike that of regular tapestry with "saw-tooth" edges in the spaces between them.

The scroll here depicts a child wearing Mongolian clothing and riding on a goat as he looks back. Two other children and eight other goats create a group for "Nine Goats (Yang) for the New Year," an auspicious subject in traditional China. The composition is similar to that of "Welcoming Spring," a textile in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The forms of the various plants are beautiful and the embroidery technique extraordinary, making this an excellent example of textile art from the Yuan to Ming period and perhaps related to achievements in imperial weaving in the Mongol Yuan period.

Shri Hevajra

Anonymous, Yuan dynasty (1279-1368)
Hanging scroll, silk tapestry, 86.3 x 63.4 cm

This silk tapestry of a Buddhist deity was remounted into its present format by the Qing dynasty court. It was originally identified in Pearly Forests of the Secret Palace as Mahākāla, a wrathful manifestation often seen in Tibetan Buddhism serving as a guardian of the faith. This work depicts the deity with eight faces, sixteen arms, and four legs. Scholars, however, believe this is actually a depiction of Shri Hevajra, one of the five main deities in Tibetan Buddhism and a principal object of devotion and practice.

This work was probably at first a rectangular thangka, a traditional form of Tibetan hanging scroll; perhaps, due to damage, it was remounted after entering the Qing court collection into its present Chinese-style scroll format. Starting in the Southern Song period, Tibet and the Western Xia ordered Buddhist images in embroidered tapestry from such places in China as Hangzhou. The simple and straightforward style of this tapestry and the form of the halo are similar to those seen in Buddhist prints from the late Yuan dynasty. Although this image of Shri Hevajra may be based on a Tibetan model, it does not show the female dākinī, suggesting the influence of Chinese culture. For this reason, it may be a product of Chinese craftsmanship from the fourteenth century.

Thangka of the Taklung Monastery Abbot Tashi Pal

Anonymous, Tibetan, 13^th century
Hanging scroll, ink and colors on cloth, 50 x 38 cm

Taklung Monastery, located 65 kilometers north of Lhasa, was established by Taklung Thangpa Tashi Pal (1142-1210) in 1180 to propagate teachings of the Kagyu School of Tibetan Buddhism. This is a portrait of the first khenpo (abbot), Tashi Pal. The high monk here is shown frontally wearing Tibetan-style monastic robes in the form of preaching, the pedestal upon which he sits delicately adorned.

The painting, damaged in many places, had been frequently repaired. On the back is text written in Tibetan that suggests the scroll was done around the late thirteenth century. The composition of the painting follows the formula of a high guru depicted on a tall canopied pedetal with railings and accompanied by bodhisattvas and guardian figures below. Such an arrangement reflects the importance attached to guru devotion and temple lineage in Tibetan Buddhism.

National Palace Museum